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Chapter’s 3 & 4 Synopsis Chapters 3 & 4 Synopsis I believe the assumption of an external reality is the assumption that there is a real world that is external to our mind and senses, and that it exists whether or not we as observers exist, and whether or not we are observing it. This assumption cannot be proved because all of our perceptions, without exception, are mental images, and we have no means to go beyond our mental images. It is one we all commonly make without even thinking about it. In the military, we assume the office and the computer in it are there after we leave work at the end of the day and will be there when we arrive at work in the morning. When we head home at the end of the day, we assume that our house or apartment will be there when we arrive, and that it continued to be there in our absence after we left in the morning. We assume that our friends, relatives, and acquaintances are there whether we can see and talk to them or not, and whether or not we are thinking about them. We assume that our parents exist ed before we were born, and that many of the people we know will be alive after we die. So many of our everyday experiences repeatedly confirm this assumption that most of us hardly question it. It is an assumption that has enormous survival value: we know that a speeding car can kill us while we are crossing the street absorbed in our thoughts and unaware, that a stray bullet can instantly obliterate our consciousness without warning, or that we can die from an external agent such as a virus, a bacterium, or a poison. The assumption of external reality is necessary for science to function and to flourish. For the most part, science is the discovering and explaining of the external world. Without this assumption, there would be only the thoughts and images of our own mind (which would be the only existing mind) and there would be no need of science, or anything else. In addition to the assumption of an external reality, we also make the assumption that this reality is objective. Thi s is repeatedly confirmed by our daily experience as well as by scientific observations. I also learned that objectivity means that observations, experiments, or measurements by one person can be made by another person, who will obtain the same or similar results.

Paper on Cold-Rolling of Steels in Pil

[pic] INTRODUCTION ABOUT PENNAR INDUSTRIES LIMITED Pennar industries limited are a multi-product, multi-location enterprise. The company manufactures six different products. †¢ Cold rolled steel strips †¢ Cold rolled form sections †¢ Engineering components †¢ Road safety systems †¢ Precision tubes †¢ Fabrication Pennar industries has received the ISO 9001,2000 quality certification from RWTUV of Germany and committed to achieving excellence in the quality of product. The CRSS division, with its units at Patancheru, Isnapur and Chennai has combined annual cold rolling capacity of 1,20,000 Metric Tons. Pennar manufactures Steel Strips from 600mm to 750mm width and thickness range of 0. 25 to 5. 00mm both in coil and sheet form. Pennar caters to a wide range of customers from various sectors like: †¢ Automobiles †¢ Wide goods †¢ Domestic appliances †¢ Bearings †¢ General engineering industries FACILITIES: †¢ Quality control measures at every stage of the manyfacturing process, right from the selection of raw material to chemical analysis using spectrometer. †¢ Semi-continuous push-pell type pickling lines feed the rolling mill with scale free,iled and bright HR coils. †¢ PLC-Controlled MECON WEAN UNITED 4-HI Rolling Mill. Bell type annealing furnaces for heat treating of cold rolled steel strip †¢ Skin pass mills. CR Slitting lines and Cut to length lines. †¢ Every process is closely monitored and end products are subjected to a battery of tests to determine Hardness, Tensile strength, Yield strength,% of Elongation, cupping test and Bend test in order to meet stringent customer specification. †¢ Finished products are carefully packed, using polythene and gunny for coils and poly craft and wooden/steel pallets for sheets to provide total protection to the products during transit and handling. Pennar Industries group is well known for fulfilling their commitments. Many times they have been awarded and rewarded. [pic] PROCESS FLOW CHART (COLD ROLLED CLOSE ANNEALED STEEL STRIP) [pic][pic] RAW MATERIAL AND SOURCES The raw material for production of CRSS is ‘Hot Rolled Steel coils’ and these HR coils are produced by using â€Å"primary roughing mills† which is a 2-HI reversing mill with a 0. 6 to 1. 4 mm diameter rolls. The main purpose of the mill is to reduce casting ingots into blooms. The work piece has to be pass 10-20 times between the rolls, to have a desired width, the work piece is made to pass through â€Å"edge grooves†. HR colis are also produced in ‘Universal Mills’ without edge grooves. These coils are mainly low carbon steels which are either ‘Si’ or ‘Al’ killed. Specifications: Range 1. width 1350-1800 mm 2. Thickness 5-6 mm Ultimate Tensile strength 80 kg /mm2 Yield strength 40 kg/mm These Hot rolled coils are exported from many places like JINDAL STEEL WORKS (Karnataka), LLOYD STEELS LTD (Maharashtra), ESSAR STEELS LTD (Gujarat), ISPAT INDUSTRIES LTD (Maharashtra), SAIL etc.. There will be a sticker present on every HR coil and it will be as follows†¦ ISPAT INDUSTRIES LTD DIST-RAIGAD, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA Heat Number : 08201137 Coil Number : 0820113706/0 Grade/Specification : WG29AC Batch Number : 0001063785 Invoice Number : 2180040447 Invoice Date : 07. 05. 08 Net Weight : 23. 700MT / 52258. 501lbs Size : 1250. 00mm x 4. 00mm x mm Customer :Pennar Industries Limited Purchase Order No : 0021047514 A sample of these HR coils is taken and it is sent to spectroscopy lab for chemical analysis. SPECTROSCOPY Chemical analysis: Chemical composition of steels is checked by means of SPECTRO. Generally C, Si, Mn, P, S, Cr, Mo, Ni, Al, Cu, Nb, Ti, V, Sn, B, and N are analyzed. Test procedure for spector is as below. Preparation of sample: ? The sample must be free from slag inclusions, rust, grease, oil, fracture, voids. ? The sample must be handy for polishing. ? The dimension of the sample must be fit on the spark stand. ? The sample must be flat (to get completely seated on the spark stand). The sample is prepared on the abrasive disc grinder by using suitable abrasives having 60 grade coarseness. Method of Testing: The spectro lab is switched on half-n-hour before sparking for warming up. The spark stand is flushed with grade-I argon for few seconds before sparking. Before sparking the unknown, the primary standard/internal standards are sparked and results are compared. If the resul ts found to be ok sparking of the unknown sample is carried out by keeping the prepared unknown samples on spark stand in inverted position and is clamped and sparking is carried out. If the results are found not ok, the spectro lab is standardized with setting up samples (RE12, RE13, RE14, 5 SUS 5) supplied along with spectro lab. |[pic] | Each sample is sparked for minimum 2 times and the average results are recorded and print is taken out and the composition is known. These HR coils are sent to HR slitters.. HR SLITTERS Hot rolled coils are slitted as desired to provide material for cold-rolling. For slitting of HRSI in 1350 mm whereas HRSII is 1800 mm. he different parameters the coils,two slitters HRSI and HRSII are in use. The maximum slitting width are: Coil parameter input coil output coil Coil I. D500mm (or) 880mm 500 mm Coil O. D 1800 mm 1370(max) Coil weight 30 Tons(max) 10 tons(max) Strip thickness 5 mm – 8 mm 5 mm – 8 mm Width 1500 mm(max) 1500 mm(max) Line speed:250m/min. | |HOT ROLLED SLITTER | |[pic] | | | PICKLING Immersion of a metal component in a solution which is preferentially remove oxides and mill scales, with little effect upon the underlying metal. Solutions are usually acids or alkalies, often with addition of an inhibitors to minimize attack on the underlying metal. Typical solutions for plain carbon steels are: 5% HCl + 0. 05% Galvene at 15-500 C PROCESS: The aim of pickling is to remove the oxidation scales & rust formed during hot rolling. Initially the HR slitted coil strip is passed through three tanks called the ACID TANKS or PROCESS TANKS (Tanks 1, 2 & 3) in which the commercial HCL (Hydro Chloric Acid) acid is present with maximum concentration of 20%. In this pickling all the rust and scales on the sheet are removed. Once the sheet is passed through acid tanks it is then passed through rinse water tanks 1, 2 and 3. This is done so because after the coil is passed through the acid tanks the acid will be present on the coil/sheet. When we clean with soft water then it becomes safe for the operator. Once the coil/sheet is rinsed there are chances of getting corroded again that are why water is drained away from the coil/sheet by hot air drier and finally applied emulsion (Castrol) oil on the coil to prevent corrosion. The specifications of acid tanks 1, 2 and 3 are listed below: Acid Tank -1 Acid concentration : 2-7% % Iron content : 22max Temperature : 55-70oC Acid Tank-2 Acid concentration : 6-12% % Iron content : 22max Temperature : 50-65oC Acid Tank-3 Acid concentration : 9-16% Iron content : 20max Temperature : 45-60oC Types of pickling equipment: †¢ Cage picklers †¢ Push pull picklers †¢ Semi-continuous pickle lines †¢ Shallow picklers †¢ Turbulent pickling †¢ Spiral pickling. In pennar industries, we use semi-continuous pickling . [pic] The main reactions which take place during pickling are: Fe0+2HCl ( FeCl2+H2O Fe+2HCl ( FeCl2+H2 Care should be taken during pickling to pre vent the pitting, small holes and formation of spots on the coil due to over pickling will reduce the thickness of the sheet. When the pickling process is going on, by titration process we have to check he percentage of acid and iron in the tanks. TITRATION PROCESS: Titration process is carried out to know the percentage of iron and acid content in the tanks. This is because if the iron content exceeds the permissible level(20% Fe Content) in acid tank, then acid is to be taken off and new acid is added in the tanks to carry out pickling. Take 20ml of distilled water in a conical flask. Add 0. 2ml of Hydrochloric acid (HCl) to it. Then add few drops of acid indicator named Bromophenol blue AR with chemical formula C19H10O5SBr4 to obtain yellow coloured solution. Take Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) in a burette and note down the initial reading. Start titrating with NaOH solution till brown coloured solution (i. e. end-point) is obtained. Note down the final reading. The difference of the final and the initial reading is determined. From the table, the corresponding percentage of acid is noted down. Then add few drops of Orthophosphoric acid to neutralize the solution. Add few drops of iron indicator named Barium Diphenylamine Sulphonate GR with chemical formula C24H20BaN2O6S2 to obtain yellow colured solution. Take Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in a burette and note the initial reading. Start titrating with K2Cr2O7 solution till brown coloured solution (i. . end-point) is reached. Note down the final reading. The difference of the final and the initial readings is determined. From the table, the corresponding percentage of iron is noted down. OBSERVATIONS: 1. Titration with NaOH: Initial Reading : 25. 2 Final Reading : 26. 9 Difference : 1. 7 From the table, 3. 06% of acid. 2. Titration with K2Cr2O7: Initial Reading : 22. 9 Final Reading : 29. 0 Difference : 6. 1 From the table, 17. 08% of iron content. NOTE: After pickling recoilng is carried out with tension and apply the emulsion oil to prevent corrosion. These pickled coils are processed to next stage i. e. , cold rolling. COLD ROLLING COLD ROLLING is the process where the material is deformed plastically by passing it between rolls below recrystallisation temperature. In pennar industries cold rolling is done by 4HI Reversible Cold Rolling Mill. The name itself indicates that it is a reversible mill i. e. the rollers can rotate in forward as well as in reverse directions. In 4 HI Rolling mill, there are four rollers, of which two are back-up rolls and another two are work rolls. The load is fed to the back-up rolls and the sheet is passed through the work rolls. The back-up rolls act as the driving rolls and the work rolls as driven rolls. The direction of driving and driven rolls is opposite to each other. [pic] 4 HI-COLD REVERSING MILL PROCESS: Pickled coils are reduced to final gauge at the 4HI mill by forward and reverse rolling with load applied on the work rolls through the SCREWDOWN MECHANISM. The coils are placed on the coil car by an EOT crane. The coil car is moved towards the mandrel to load it. After loading on the mandrel the coil is fed into the work roils through the pay off reel to the delivery tension mandrel (DTR). From DTR the coil is passed through rolls to Entry Tension Reel (ETR). The coil is reduced in each pass according to the required thickness. Most care is taken during rolling to maintain required tension and speed such that the possibilities of rolling defects are minimum. The pass from the pay-off to DTR is known as the first pass and for the second pass the coil is sent from DTR to ETR. The number of passes depends on gauge reduction / final requirement. The diameters of the back-up rolls are 610mm and the work rolls are of 225mm. The barrel lengths of the rolls are 700mm and 768mm. There is a gear box present for the screw down load. There are primary and secondary motors. The ratio of primary motor is of 1:16 and that of secondary motor is 1:32. The pitch of the screw down screw is 8mm and diameter is 180mm. At the weld portion the mill is slow down and the number wraps at which weld passed the roll bite is noted down the direction of rolling reversed. The tail end is clamped to the entry tension reel . tension and load are applied and level is checked. Guage is checked by the help of non contact guage and the mill is operated at higher speeds. The operation is repeated till the doil is finished to the final guage. Final pass reduction is maintained low i. e. , 8%-16%. To maintain shape coil is wounded on low tension. Final pass thickness is checked at operating and drive sides and it is maintained throughout the strip by adjusting load and tension after the rolling operation is over the coil end lap is wound,and bonded and transferred to the skid. TECHNICAL DATA ON ROLLING: MILL MANUFACTURES: Latest computer controlled MECON WEAN UNITED 4 HI cold reversing Mill GRADES : Mild steel[DDDEDDEDDSMEDIUM] SPECIFICATIONS : IS 513, IS 4397,IS 4030 STRIPSHEET WIDTH : 25 mm to 630 mm THICKNESS : 0. 25 mm to 6. 00 mm SURFACE FINSH : Bright, Fine Matt, Matt, Rough. BACK UP ROLL DIA : 610 mm to 567 mm WORK ROLLS DIA : 225 mm WORK ROLL LENGTH : 700 mm After cold rolling process, the grains are enlarged the coil becomes very hard due to work hardening and internal stresses that are developed in the material. In order to restore ductility and relieve internal stresses of the material ANNEALING has to be done. ANNEALING Annealing is the process of heat treatment by which the metal very ductile. It is also used to homogenize the material, composition by diffusion and it relieves the residual stresses which are arising from cold working. It also results in grain refinement by recrystallisation process. The temperature to which the metal is subjected and the time for which the temperature is maintained depends upon the parent metal and the particular properties that are desired on the final stage. In pennar industries annealing is generally carried out for following reasons:- ? To obtain softness. ? To increase or restore ductility. ? To relieve internal stresses. ? To refine grain structure. To homogenize the mechanical properties. In Pennar Industries SUB CRITICAL ANNEALING is carried out (below recrystallisation temperature). SUB CRITICAL ANNEALING Is a method of annealing while include heating of metal to the metal below the lower critical temperature. I. e. below 737C. Soaking for some time and cooling at a very slow rate in the furnace it self. ANNEALING PROCEDURE: Gener ally, Annealing is carried out in bell type furnaces or Electric arc furnaces which uses diesel and LPG as a fuel and temperature will be regulated by the fuel supply to undergo annealing process. BELL TYPE FURNACE [pic] TECHNICAL DATA: FURNACE : Apex and allied COIL DETAILS : OD 1200 -1700 ID 400 OR 500 CHARGE WEIGHTS : 30000 TO 40000 CHARGE HEIGHT : 2650 MM (MAX) FURNACE TEMP : 960 (MAX) FLOW METER FOR NITROGEN GAS: TEMPERATURE :86 0 C(MAX) PRESSURE : 1 PSI (MAX) The different stages in annealing process are as follows: Charging: The coils are stacked on the base in such a way that coils with decreasing diameter will be arranged from bottom to top. The coil should be stacked with centers of the coils and axis. If furnace stacking should be absolutely concentric so that uniform gap is obtained between the coils and inner cover. The intermediate concentricity should be provided between all the coils to ensure good circulation. Purging: The inner hood shall be brought on to the charge and fixed to the base. The protective gas flow starts at a rate of 15 Nm3/ hour and maintained for about 45 min, so that the initial air in the hood is fully replaced by the protective gas. This process is called as purging process. Heating: After the charging space has been filled with HYDROGEN and NITROGEN and flow rate of around 15m/hr, the heating can be commenced. All the settings and attachments needed to start the furnace are finished. The rate of heating depends upon the charge weight, % of reduction and carbon equalent. Generally heating rate is 40c/hour upto 520c and 30c/hour from above 520c. In PENNAR INDUSTRIES fired furnaces are used for heating. When the temperature at the thermocouple reaches the set point the fuel supply will be regulated periodically. Soaking: Maintaining the specific temperature of charge for required hours , is known as soaking. In the process the charge coil are soaked for some hours depending upon the different qualities of coils, under the required temperature. When the soaking is over, an audio alarm is given and the furnace is automatically disconnected by the central controls. The annealing cycle comes on end. Cooling: The furnace is removed from the base and cooling hood is brought on the base to expand the cooling process. The cooling hood is removed when the charge temperature reaches about 90c. At 90c the charge is ready for loading. After cooling, the coils are discharged from the base and are placed for air cooling. The coils are cooled completely for room temperature in 2 to 3 hrs, after which they are processed further. PSL consists of 33 bases, 14 furnaces and 16 cooling hoods in annealing yard. The loading capabilities of different bases are given. Bases capacity(tons) 22. 15-20 33. 25-30 Technical characteristics: Charge materials : MS,D,DD,EDD Stack height :2650 mm(max) Estimated coil dia : 1600(max) Charge temperature :300 C Annealing temp : 7300 C Bell furnace temp : 9000 C Flow of protective gases: During purging ;14 Nm3/hr During heating :8-10 Nm3/hr During cooling :2 Nm3/hr PROTECTIVE GAS PLANT Protective Gas plant is operated for producing Nitrogen in pennar steels ltd. Equipment:- In Pennar steels the Nitrogen gas produces from air by absorption with pure drier and ammonia cracker unit. PLANT CAPACITY :60 N. M3 HR TYPE :PSA 60. 7. 10 + DEOXO/NLPD 60. 7+CU 60. 7+NH3 -10E ANALYSIS :HYDROGEN APPROX 4% BY VOLUME OXYGEN MAX 10 PPM AMMONIA MAX 10-20PPM NITROGEN+RARE GASSES-BALANCE DEW POINT :APPROX 40 C WITH DELIVERY PRESSURE CONSUMPTION : GAS AMMONIA APPROX 1. 8 KG/HR AT MAX VALUES PRESSSURE OF 18 KG/CM2 POWER APPROX :49. 87 KWH/HR COOLING WATER :12. 5 M3/HR TEMP INLET : 300C TEMP OUTLET :400C PRESSURE :2-3 KG/CM2 SKIN PASS The annealed cold rolled strip is very limited in its usage because of the yield point phenomenon. When annealed strip is processed in the dead soft condition, it tends to yield unequally manifesting luder lines or stretcher strains. This is the process manifestation of the break in the stress strain curves. If luder lines are to be avoided, this thing has to be smoothened as shown in the adjacent curve. This is achieved by the process of skin pass where the strip is given a very minor reduction of the order of 1. % max elongation. This makes the strip surface tough but the interior of the strip retains the softness so that when further drawing operations are carried out, the strip forms smoothly without any evidence of luder lines. The other advantages of temper rolling are as follows: ? Providing desired finishes such as matt or bright on the strip surface ? Imparting flatness to the strip ? Breaking up spangles from galvanized strip Skin pass process:- |[pic] | Skin pass is a process of applying a regulated and very low load on the material in the mill it self. The reduction of thickness in skin pass is just below 5% reduction. The skin pass operation is a single pass operation unlike reduction in the rolling mill. The operation is similar to rolling but only one pass from pay off reel to delivery reel is giving with minimum load and with required surface finish work rolls and with proper tension. Anticrimping rolls are used in the skin pass for good shape control and to go flat surface. Surface roughness of the material is measured with the help of surface roughness checking unit i. . ,SURTRONIC-10. After the skin pass a sample is taken from the strip and it is sent to quality assurance department to find out the different properties like UTS,YS,elongation,hardness,drawability and bending. QUALITY ASSURANCE DEPARTMENT Various mechanical test has to be done on the sample taken from the product(coil) to prove its quality. The various machine ry in use,in QAD are †¢ Vacuum spectroscopy †¢ Rockwell Hardness Machine †¢ Vickers hardness machine †¢ Universal testing machine †¢ Ericsson testing machine †¢ Optical microscope. HARDNESS TEST: Hardness is defines as â€Å"Resistance of metal to plastic deformation, usually by indentation. However, the term may also refer to stiffness or temper, or to resistance to scratching, abrasion, or cutting. It is the property of a metal, which gives it the ability to resist being permanently, deformed (bent, broken, or have its shape changed), when a load is applied. The greater the hardness of the metal, the greater resistance it has to deformation. There are three types of tests used with accuracy by the metals industry; they are the Brinell hardness test, the Rockwell hardness test, and the Vickers hardness test. ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST: The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement based on the net increase in depth of impression as a load is applied In the Rockwell method of hardness testing, The indenter may either be a steel ball of some specified diameter or a spherical diamond-tipped cone of 120? angle and 0. 2 mm tip radius, called Brale. The type of indenter and the test load determine the hardness scale(A, B, C, etc) A minor load of 10 kg is first applied, which causes an initial penetration and holds the indenter in place. Then, the dial is set to zero and the major load is applied. Upon removal of the major load, the depth reading is taken while the minor load is still on. The hardness number may then be read directly from the scale. SCALES AND VALUES: The different scale used for different materials are tabulated as follows: |Various Rockwell scales[7] | |Scale | VICKERS HARDNESS TEST: Vickers hardness is a measure of the hardness of a material, calculated from the size of an impression produced under load by a pyramid-shaped diamond indenter. Devised in the 1920s by engineers at Vickers, Ltd. , in the United Kingdom, the diamond pyramid hardness test, as it also became known, permitted the establishment of a continuous scale of comparable numbers that accurately reflected the wide range of hardnesses found in steels. The indenter employed in the Vickers test is a square-based pyramid whose opposite sides meet at the apex at an angle of 136?. The diamond is pressed into the surface of the material at loads ranging up to approximately 120 kilograms-force, and the size of the impression (usually no more than 0. 5 mm) is measured with the aid of a calibrated microscope. The Vickers number (HV) is calculated using the following formula: HV = 1. 854(LD2) [pic] with L being the applied load (measured in kilograms-force) and D2 the area of the indentation (measured in square millimetres). The applied load is usually specified when HV is cited. As a result of the latitude in applied loads, Vickers testers is applicable to measuring the hardness of very thin sheets as well as heavy sections. The specimen is taken from the strip and indentation is done by using both vicker and Rockwell and then the values of Vickers and Rockwell is tabulated . TENSILE TEST:- Tensile test is done to know the tensile strength, yield strength and percentage elongation of the material whether they are in specified limits of the customer tolerances are not. Tensile test values apply to transverse specimen in case of sheets/strips. Strips having a width of 250mm and below shall be tested longitudinally. UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE [pic] PROCEDURE:- Tensile test is widely used to determine strength, ductility, toughness, resilience and several other material properties. A test specimen of rectangular crossection of 20mm width of suitable length is prepared from the material to be tested. During the preparation of the sample to avoid sharp sides by deburring the sample with the help of file, this reduces the chances of failures of specimen at low stress values. After this the specimen is held by suitable means between the two heads of a testing machine and subjected to a progressively increasing tensile load till the specimen fractures. A record of the load acting on the specimen with progressive extension of the specimen is obtained. YIELD STRENGTH:- Most non ferrous materials and high strength steels do not possess a well defined yield point. For these materials the maximum useful strength is the yield strength. The yield strength is the stress at which the material exhibits a specifies limiting deviation from the proportionality of stress to strain. This value is usually determined by the â€Å"off-set method†. The value of off-set method is generally between 0. 1 and 0. 2 % of the gauge length. The value of yield strength can be calculate by YS = ((DIVISIONS * LOAD) / (WIDTH * GAUGE)) = †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. N/sq. mm Here, the divisions are obtained from the graph between stress and strain given by the UTS machine. The experimental values are tabulated. DUCTILITY: The ductility of material is indicated by the amount of deformation i. e. , possible until fracture. This is determined in tension test by two measurements ELONGATION: This is determined by fitting together, after fracture, the parts of the specimen and measuring the distance between the original gauge marks Elongation=(Lf-Lo)/ LoX100 Where Lf-Final gauge length Lo- Original gauge length In reporting percentage elongation, the Original gauge length must be specified since the percentage elongation will vary with gauge length Elongation is carried out in UTS machine and the values are obtaines in either 50 GL 80 GL. The experimental values are tabulated: ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH: The value of ultimate tensile strength gives the maximum stress that the strip can with stand before fracture and this value can be calculated by the graph obtained from the universal testing machine. The graph plotted in between the load applies and strain. UTS = (LOAD/(WIDTH * GAUGE)) = †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. N/sq. mm EXPERIMENTAL DATA Mechanical Properties: | |S/P ID |MIDDLE |S/P OD | |COIL NO |83215-A |83215-A |83215-A | |SIZE |492 X 1. 8 |492 X 1. |492 X 1. 8 | |QUALITY |D |D |D | |SPECIFICATION |S/P (ID) |CTL (M) |S/P (OD) | |GAUGE |2. 0 |1. 8 |1. 78 | |WIDTH |20. |20. 2 |20. 3 | |LOAD |14000N |10206N |12370N | |UTS |348. 25N/sq. mm |320. 72N/sq. mm |342. 37N/sq. mm | |HRB |59 |57 |57 | |YS |250. 7N/sq. mm | |271. 25N/sq. mm | |ELONGATION | | | | |80GL |41 |40 |38 | |50GL |47 |46 |44 | |S/P ID |MIDDLE |S/P OD | |COIL NO |83312-A |83312-A |83312-A | |SIZE |408 X 1. 2 |408 X 1. 2 |408 X 1. | |QUALITY |EDD |EDD |EDD | |SPECIFICATION |S/P (ID) |CTL (M) |S/P (OD) | |GAUGE |2. 4 |1. 22 |1. 29 | |WIDTH |20. 2 |20. 3 |20. | |LOAD |14000N |6870N |7470N | |UTS |288. 77N/sq. mm |277. 39N/sq. mm |285. 25N/sq. mm | |VPN/RHN |75 |42/43 |44/45 | |YS |235. 14N/sq. mm |214. 81N/sq. mm |265. 14N/sq. m | |ELONGATION | | | | |80GL |40 |41 |41 | |50GL |46 |47 |47 | COLD ROLLED SLITTING The width of the coil at the time of HR Slitting is planned such that the width at which the material is rolled will be generally in multiples of the requirements. Also at the time of rolling the edges of the sheet will be damaged. So in order to remove the spoiled edges the cold roll slitting is done. The slitting of the coil is done according to work order. The main purpose of slitting is to ensure that:- 1. width is always as per the W. O requirements and the properties are also ensured 2. sufrace of the strips on both sides is to be ensured as free from defects such as rust, pits, holes,scales,dents,unslit edges, laminations,patches,scratches,scoring and other defects which disturbs the end products 3. hape,cambers and other requirements has given in the W. O are totally ensured. 4. Rust preventive oil is applied uniformly on all sheets or wraps. PROCESS: The coils are placed on the coil car by EOT cranes. The coil mandrel is expanded to grip the coil and binding strap is cut. The uncoiler is inched by the inched drive and the load end is separated from the coil. The load end is taken to the entry pinch roll, hold down roll is lifted and fu rther threading is done by jogging pinch roll drive. [pic] | Side guide is adjusted to the correct width. The slitter drive is jogged and load end is passed ahead of the slitter. The loop pit table is transverse over the pit by jogging slitter. The slit stands are taken to drag wise over the loop pit table which is separated and threaded to recoiler. The slit stands are passed properly in the rewind mandrel. The drag vice is closed and few wraps are taken by jogging and the recoiled is under low tension. The scrap is threaded to scrap winder and initially winding is done by jogging the drive. The machine can be run at a required speed The CRS machine is chosen as per the specifications of the machine for which the gauge of the sheet forms the important criteria. The specifications of different CRS machines are as follows: CRS I: MAKE : M/S DAS NAGAR, KOLKATTA SPECIFICATIONS : I/P COIL THICKNESS : 0. 25 to 6mm max ID : 500mm OD : 1800mm MAX COIL WT : 10MT O/P COIL WIDTH : 20mm to 710mm NO OF SLITS : 7 max TOL : +/- 0. 15 ID : 400/500mm OD : 1800mm CRS II: MAKE : M/S BOMBAY CRANES PVT. LTD, MUMBAI SPECIFICATIONS : I/P COIL THICKNESS : 100mm to 7. 2mm max ID : 500mm OD : 1800mm MAX COIL WT : 10MT O/P COIL WIDTH : 20mm to 710mm max NO OF SLITS : 7 max TOL : +/- 0. 15 ID : 500mm OD : 1800mm CRS III: MAKE : LYKA INDUSTRIES, KOLKATTA SPECIFICATIONS : I/P COIL THICKNESS : 0. 3 to 1. 2mm ID : 400(500mm) OD : 1600mm MAX COIL WT : 2MT O/P COIL WIDTH : 6mm to 250mm ID : 400(500mm) OD : 1500mm NO OF SLITS : 7 max TOL : + / – 0. 15 CUT TO LENGTH After slitting of CR coils in slitters into required sheet form, it will taken into the C. T. L Units. The coil is fed through leveler and copped to the length required by the customer. The length, width, thickness, quality and the visible defects are checked by the quality department persons. The finished sheets and strips shall be free from harmful defects, such as scale, rust, blisters, laminations, pitting, porosity, cracks or torn edges or any other defects which are harmful to the intended use. The degree or amount of surfaces defects in a coil may be expected to be more than in cut length because of the impossibility of rejecting portions of the coil. This shall be taken into account by the purchaser in his assessment of the material. An excessive amount of defects may lead to the rejection of lot. The sheets shall be reasonably flat and edges cleanly sheared and squared to the specified dimensions. The CTL machine is selected according to the work order i. e. the gauge and size required. The specifications of the machines are: CTL I: MAKE : TATA DAVY LTD. , KOLKATTA MIN WIDTH : 30mm THICKNESS : 0. 4mm LENGTH : 340mm I/P COIL ID : 400/500mm COIL WEIGHT : 7. 5MT max MAX WIDTH : 685mm THICKNESS : 3. 1mm LENGTH : 3000mm I/L COIL OD : 1800mm CTL II: MIN WIDTH : 30mm THICKNESS : 2. 0mm LENGTH : 400mm I/P COIL ID : 400/500mm COIL WEIGHT : 7. 5MT max MAX WIDTH : 720mm THICKNESS : 6. 5mm LENGTH : 3500mm I/L COIL OD : 1800mm CTL III: MAKE : M/S GODREJ, MUMBAI MIN WIDTH : 70mm THICKNESS : 0. 2mm LENGTH : 450mm I/P COIL ID : 500mm COIL WEIGHT : 7. 5MT max MAX WIDTH : 720mm THICKNESS : 1. 6mm LENGTH : 4500mm I/L COIL OD : 1800mm DESPATCH Sheets and strips shall be supplied in coils or bundles of cut length or in packages each weighing not more than three tones as may be agreed the purchaser and the supplier. Sheets and strips shall be packed in water proof paper or polythene lined Hessian and securely tied around with hoop iron. A number of coils may be bundled with wooden patterns in between or may be packed in wooden boxes. Strips may also be packed with separate thin metallic sheets wrapped around and with bands of hoop iron. ———————– PICKLING HR SLITTING INSPECTION RAW MATERIAL ROLLING ANNEALING SKIN PASS MATERIAL TESTING CR SLITTING CUT TO LENGTH PACKING & DESPATCH

Equality Act 2010 And Data Protection Act 1998 - 1700 Words

My chosen pieces of legislation: Equality act 2010 and Data Protection Act 1998 Legislation is put in place to ensure the convention happens. Legislation is a set of laws passed by parliament. If these laws are broken, the individual that has done so may be charged with the crime. The Equality act 2010 was put into place to prevent discrimination taking place towards employees because of any factors that may be present such as their race, gender, sexuality, disability or any other factors. This could be in employment and access to services within the hospital. This law applies to any public service Treating people equally means treating every individual no lower or higher than another individual. The equality act is there to support all individuals, but many may not be aware that this piece of legislation has played an active role in their everyday lives. It requires equal treatment in access to jobs ensuring equality amongst all regardless of any factors that may be present such as skin colour, allowing a multicultural place of work, helping to provide service users with a well-rounded team who can educate one another on different cultures through personal experiences and contribute advice on the preferences of service users. This Act protects all of the following characteristics; this law protect, gender reassignment, age, disability, marriage/civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex, sexual orientation. October 2010 Equality ActShow MoreRelated1.1 Summarise Key Aspects of Legislation, Regulatory Requirements and Codes of Practice Relating to Own Role and Responsibilities792 Words   |  4 Pageslearning, seeking to expand my skills and to deepen my knowledge as a teacher. Now I’m going to say a few words about some of the most important legislations that comply with in order to become a good teacher. Calin Rusu Confidentiality and Data protection Act (1998) are very important legislations for a teacher being linked to the Domains A and E from LLUK standards. Learners expect us to respect and protect confidentiality. This duty extends to any information relating to a learner which we acquireRead MoreThe Human Rights Act 1998914 Words   |  4 Pagesimplications in regards to this study and the relevance to this particular case. The Human Rights Act 1998 according to Wild and Weinstein (2013-p217) came into force on the 2nd of October 2010. It seeks to protect the rights of all European nations. (LIST ALL RIGHTS IF YOU HAVE THE WORD COUNT) The Equality Act 2006 according to personnel today (2006) was firstly to establish the Commission for Equality and Human Rights, this is applicable to discrimination on grounds of beliefs and religions in theRead MoreIntroduction The greatest asset of the company is the people working there. The objectives are1500 Words   |  6 Pagesevaluation, rewarding and dismissal – all related to people . Role of Data Protection 1.1 Data Protection in Enabling E-Commerce for the Company Secure protection of corporate and personal data is fundamental in the company’s operation and management. As Head of Human Resources, data protection has the focus largely on personal data protection and involves careful strategic planning, decision making and continuous revision. Data protection has to comply with the policies of the company that have alreadyRead MoreOutline Policy And Regulatory Frame Work Essay1021 Words   |  5 PagesState. I Children Act (2004)Every child matter providing the legal underpinning for the every child matter the outcome are: be healthy stay safe enjoy and achieve make a positive contribution Achieve economic well-being. Education and skills act(2008) proposed to increase participation in learning, for young people and adult. It put in place a right for adults to basic and intermediate skill, giving adults a possibility to get the abilities they need. Equality Act (2010) The protectedRead MoreRelationship Between Diverse Cultures And Values1550 Words   |  7 Pageslaw makers to create provisions to foster equivalent respect for all individuals over that last few decades. The Race Relations Act 1968 stipulates the meaning of discrimination, making provisions for the regulation of equality and avoidance of discrimination against all and any individual on the basis of color, race, ethnic or national origin . Also, The Equality Act 2010 in its key concepts provides regulations against direct and combined discrimination of individuals based on, among other thingsRead MoreResponsibilities And Responsibilities Of A Lifelong Learning2594 Words   |  11 Pagesregulatory requirements and codes of practice that are relevant to own role. These includes - †¢ The Health and Safety Act at work 1974/ amended 2010 †¢ The Data Protection Act 1998/ amended 2010 †¢ The Equality Act 2010 †¢ Human Right Act 1998 †¢ Freedom of Information Act (2000) †¢ Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act (2006) etc. (www.gov.uk). The Health and Safety Act at 1974/ amended 2010. This contains; †¢ Safe environment †¢ Fire Safety †¢ First Aid †¢ Pest control †¢ Accessibility †¢ Waste disposal †¢ ChemicalsRead MoreEvaluation Of My Own Performance1257 Words   |  6 PagesRetention processes. The legal framework of recruitment and selection process contains the following: 1. The Equality Act 2010: this Act protects individuals from unfair treatment and promotes a fair and more equal society. The Equality Act 2010 contains nine legislations that have been merged together. There are two types of discrimination that is included in The Equality Act 2010: Direct discrimination is when a person is treated differently and less favourably then it should be because ofRead MoreEssay on Cypop Task 1670 Words   |  3 PagesAssignment 1 Current Legislation Covering Homebased Childcare And The Role Of The Regulatory Bodies Children Act (2004) This influential piece of legislation arose from the Green Paper ‘Every Child Matters’ and identifies five outcomes for all children: * Be healthy * Stay safe * Enjoy and achieve * Make a positive contribution * Achieve economic well-being Childcare Act (2006) This Act introduced the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) curriculum into England and Wales, and place a statutoryRead MoreSummarise the Laws and Codes of Practice Affecting Work in Schools.948 Words   |  4 Pages†¢ Children Act 2006 – Is an Act that defines the new duties imposed on the Local Authorities in respect to improving the Every Child Matters outcomes for pre-school children. The Act also defines new rules in relation to childcare for working parents as well as parental information services. It is aimed at improving the well-being of young children. It emphasises the importance of safeguarding children and young people within an educational setting. If a child discloses neglect or abuse; an establishmentRead MoreCYPOP5 Task 1 Outline the current legislation covering home based childcare and the role of regulatory bodies1722 Words   |  7 Pagesthis leaflet, please ask and I would be happy to provide you as a parent with more details. Children’s Act 1989 2004 The first time Children’s rights were recognised under UK Law was in the Children’s Act 1989, which summarised, means ‘the needs of the child are paramount’ (Riddall-Leech 2010 p18). Later, in 2004, the Every Child Matters agenda was born. This is the primary legislative Act that all childcare practitioners must observe. It outlines five conclusions that all children should meet

The Pros And Cons Of Homeschooling - 1331 Words

Page 1 of 3 ZOOM Badr AlmutawaProfessor SpollenEnglish I24 July 2017Homeschooling: A Reasonable AlternativeHomeschooling is becoming an increasingly attractive alternative to other forms of schooling such as at public or private schools. homeschooling does seem to gain opponents from time to time and they might have good points. However, this movement has rendered satisfactory results and should continue to be legal and should be respected and aided by educators and the legal system. Home schooling produces students that are learning as much or even more than other students, and are well socialized and stable, who can get a college education and who are better citizens than those who graduate from other†¦show more content†¦Another homeschooler won a $50,000 scholarship and an Intel Foundation Young Scientists award. Third, the Scripps National Spelling Bee winner won it for the fourth time and was a homeschooled student (Green and Green 25). They have also à ¢Ã‚â‚ ¬Ã‚€between 2000 and 2005 improved their record with the National Merit Scholarships. They went from 137 semifinalists to 250 semifinalistsà ¢Ã‚€Â€(Lyman 11). These accomplishments added to the fact that they do just as well or better than public school students support the idea that they are not being denied a good education. Minority groups such as African Americans are benefiting from the homeschool movement. There is a significant increase in homeschooling among this group because there is a gap in achievement between blacks and whites. In traditional schools,blacks are doing very poorly and the parents are trying to find alternatives and so far, home schooling is become their workablealternative (GaitherFurther, to add to their successes, they are getting a good enough education that they are admitted to colleges and universities (Drenovsky 24). They are being admitted to colleges and claim that they can speak and write clearly and they can also th ink critically (Drenovsky 23). Once in college, they do well and have high grade point averages (Greene and Greene 25). For example, when homeschooled studentsShow MoreRelatedPros And Cons Of Homeschooling1383 Words   |  6 PagesHomeschooling is a phenomenon that has been there for a long time where parents pass knowledge and skills learned from a long times experience to the younger generations. This practice equipped the younger generations with skills that they would use in their lives guaranteeing their success in life. Since the time that this method began, many things have changed in different aspects involving education and social setting as well. It is a time that the homeschooling practice is re-evaluated sitingRead MorePros And Cons Of Homeschooling1126 Words   |  5 Pagesother kid from public school, they could all do well if they studied hard enough and put in the work. Isabel also stated â€Å"Homeschooling is becoming more popular every day, with a growth rate of 7 to 15 percent per year. There are about two million children currently learning at home† Also said by a research by National Home Education Research Institute (NHERI) in 2010, homeschooling is growing at a rate of 2-8% every year making it the fastest among different forms of education. This may seem like aRead MoreThe Pros and Cons of Homeschooling1182 Words   |  5 PagesHomeschooling has long been an alternate method for parents to educate their children. Homeschooling is a method where a child is being schooled at home by their parents, relatives or private tutors to educate their children from pre-k to 12th grade. Basically their whole childhood to their early adulthood. Homeschooling should be avoided by parents because it can cause their children to have a difficult time integrating into society because they have extremely limited interaction with their ownRead More Homeschooling Pros and Cons Essay1009 Words   |  5 PagesHomeschooling Pros and Cons Homeschooling is a rising alternative in children’s education. As with any other major movement there have been doubts and debates as well as support and promotion for this educational approach. Homeschooling was once the norm in society before there was a public school system. But the parents involved in homeschooling feel very strongly about the positive outcomes that it has brought about in the lives and success of their children. It has once again surfaced and becomeRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Homeschooling1022 Words   |  5 PagesWhile homeschooling is legal in all 50 states, federal courts have not settled the issue of whether homeschooling should be considered a fundamental right. This means that in the future, an anti-homeschooling state legislature could take away the ability to homeschool. To protect itself against efforts to suppress the homeschooling movement, Raley suggests that the homeschooling movement seeks to have homeschooling recognized as a fundamental right under the Fourteenth Amendment. If homeschoolingRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Homeschoolg And Homeschooling773 Words   |  4 Pagesfor success and improvement. Two controversial forms of education are public schooling and homeschooling. Though public schooling is beneficial, homeschooling has proven itself to be better in almost every area, including productivity, socialization, testing, cost, and flexibility. While in public school students are required to stay for countless hours, having no say in the curriculum. In homeschooling students have a flexible schedule; they can spend as much time as they want on subjects. Read MoreHomeschooling in the United States: Types, Pros and Cons Essay1988 Words   |  8 PagesIs Homeschooling A Good Educational System? Once a parent has child that is old enough to start school, the parent has to think about if they want to enroll their child in public school or homeschool them. Today, many parents are homeschooling their children. A U.S. Department of Education’s report shows that approximately 1.5 million children were being homeschooled in 2007 (Lips amp; Feinberg, 2008). This is almost 3 percent of all school age children (Lips amp; Feinberg, 2008). A privateRead MoreEssay On Homeschooling907 Words   |  4 PagesHomeschooling Many families are taking their children out of public and private school’s classroom to move the classroom to their homes. In both articles, the parents have different reasons for why they are choosing to homeschool instead of keeping their children in public or private schools. Homeschooling is not for everyone and cannot be taken lightly. There are many different reasons why families would rather homeschool instead of sending their children to public schools. According to parentsRead MoreWhy I Homeschool : The Answers Change Almost As Fast As My Kids1084 Words   |  5 Pagesor so she thought. Amy Thornton–Kelly explains the many reasons why homeschooling is the best decision she has made. First, she explains that once her husband and her considered homeschooling â€Å"the floodgates opened† to the many benefits of homeschooling. It alleviates stress, allows her kids to learn in a healthier environment and allows her to teach her kids in a more profound way. Second, Thornton-Kelly states that homeschooling allows her kids to better master subjects, unlike in public schoolsRead MoreThe Effects Of Homeschooling On Children And Public Schools895 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction: Homeschooling is becoming much more common now than it was years ago. Parents are now preferring to homeschool their children over public school due to many reasons such as religion, safety, academic quality travel, family togetherness, separation of government and school, mastery over grades, expenses, and focusing on learning plans made for the student. Public schools are institutions, which are funded by tax revenues from the government. Schools have boundaries to then figure

Wilma Mankiller - 2536 Words

Wilma Mankiller was born November 18, 1945 in Oklahoma but later relocated due to the Bureau of Indian Affairs’ Indian Relocation Program of the 1950’s. Because the relocation program failed to keep promises it made to Native Americans, Wilma became an activist fighting for the rights of Native Americans (Wallis). Wilma Mankiller was the first female elected Deputy Chief and later became the first female in modern history to lead a major Native American tribe by becoming the first Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma in 1987. With an enrolled population of over 140,000 members and an annual budget of more than $75 million, her accomplishment is equal to that of a chief executive office of a major corporation (Yannuzzie).†¦show more content†¦Across cultures and throughout history, women have experienced ongoing systemic oppression; and they have responded with progressive movements of protest and creative alternatives. Harriet Tubman in the fight against slavery: Fannie Lou Hamer for voting rights: Ella Baker and Mary White Ovington in the civil rights movement: Rosa Luxemburg in the German socialist movement: Winnie Mandela in the anti-apartheid movement: Puerto Rican independence leader and poet Lolita Lebron: and American Indian movement activists Anna Mae Aquash, Ingrid Washinawatok, and Winona LaDuke (Mink and Navarro). Women have pioneered in movements for labor rights, prison reform, reproductive rights and health, education, affordable housing, affirmative action and equal rights, human rights, and environmental safety. These women’s leadership styles span a range from soft to harsh, from wielding individual, hierarchical power to possessing a commitment to collectivism, and from identifying as â€Å"woman as caretaker of life† to woman as requiring and utilizing equal power to man. There is no one characteristic that applies to all women as social change leaders (Hurtado). In the United States and the majority of other countries, a woman has never been president: men still dominate the economy. These factual sociological, economic and political conditions have a direct impact on what projects women organize and lead. There are those who are known publicly, who have written,Show MoreRelatedThe Influence Of Social Change On My Life1721 Words   |  7 Pages When looking on the outside Wilma Mankiller and I seem to be nothing but a blur of different skin color, struggles, and livelihoods. Once you put on the sociological glasses though, the picture begins to clear and we seem more alike than when you were blind. You begin to sharpen in on our similarities of social changes, gender problems and how the world perceives us, and our out-of-the-home identities we struggle to hold. Through multiple sociological concepts a chief and a student are able to seemRead MoreEssay about Analysis Gender Equality and Gender Discrimination913 Words   |  4 Pages(Rousseau) â€Å"Nontraditional Jobs† Wilma Mankiller, Gwendolyn Mink, Marysa Navarro, Barbara Smith, and Gloria Steinem, eds. THE READERS COMPANION TO U.S. WOMENS HISTORY Dec. 1, 1998, n.p. http://sks.sirs.com/cgi-bin/hst-article-display?id=S4450859-0-2858artno=0000264516type=ARTshfilter=Ukey=Gender%20roletitle=Nontraditional%20Jobsres=Yren=Ngov=Nlnk=Nic=N/ â€Å"Emile† Jean-Jacques Rousseau http://facstaff.uww.edu/johnsons/Rousseau.htm â€Å"Moral Reform† Wilma Mankiller, Gwendolyn Mink, Marysa NavarroRead MoreWhat Does Character Look Like?810 Words   |  4 Pagesthe desired look; consequently, ‘chemists, perfumers, beauty salons, drug stores†¦ and department store – began to establish a profit-making infrastructure for new notions of beauty† with a â€Å"dominant message, that every woman could achieve beauty† (Mankiller). Conformity to the beauty standard is how we’ve chosen to cope with the growing importance of appearance but, should our approach have been in the opposite direction: for instance eliminating the standard of beauty and letting meritorious qualificationsRead MoreQuestions On Women And Domestic Abuse1523 Words   |  7 Pagespeople who were in a domestic relationship with the victim (Howard and McCurley). In 1985, a surgeon named General Everett Koop showed that a larger majority of women are injured by abuse and battery than by accidents, rape and mugging combined (Mankiller and Wilma). Additionally, it’s more common that one might think. You most likely know someone who was in abuse relationship at one point. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1 out of every 4 women reported having been abused byRead MoreWhy Eugenics Is A Violation Of A Human s Rights1749 Words   |  7 Pagesexistence.† In the past century, humans have been experimenti ng and debating the use of eugenics, which is the science of improving the human race through controlled breeding in order to increase the occurrence of desirable, heritable characteristics (Mankiller). Although eugenics is supported by many, one could argue that eugenics is a violation of a human’s rights. In the United States Constitution, some of the human rights mentioned are the right to liberty and freedom, the right to live life free fromRead MoreA Timeline of Gendered Movements849 Words   |  3 Pagescapabilities rather than judging a person on account of his or her gender. Works cited: Kerber, Linda K. U.S. History As Womens History: New Feminist Essays, (Univ of North Carolina Press, 20.03.1995) Mink, Gwendolyn, Navarro, Marysa, Mankiller, Barbara Smith, Wilma, and Steinem Gloria, The Readers Companion to U.S. Womens History, (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 15.10.1999) Ruiz, Vicki, and DuBois, Ellen Carol, Unequal Sisters: A Multicultural Reader in U.S. Womens History, (Routledge, 2000) Read MoreMary B. Shelleys Frankenstein Essay1347 Words   |  6 PagesBradley and etc, who often were adventurous with form and unafraid of vital women characters; these writers have been architects of new worlds with their own social structures, values, and language in the world of science, english, and culture (Mankiller). Furthermore, unlike creating a new life form like Victor had in the gothic novel Frankenstein, scientists now seek to make a better the human race by engineering or use of biotechnology on the basis of human functions and abilities: genes. LikewiseRead MoreNative American Cherokee Tribe : Native Americans916 Words   |  4 PagesButler in North Carolina† (Smithers, 2015). Many Indians from the Cherokee tribe ended up in Oklahoma, and some still live there today. Cherokees are led by war chiefs and peace chiefs. The first woman to be principle chief of the Cherokees was Wilma Mankiller. Sequoyah was a very intelligent man. He did not know how to read or write in other languages but he came up with the writing system for the Cherokees. Cherokee literary writing has its origins in defining locality. Like all Native American communitiesRead MoreEating Disorders: The Skinny on Skinny Essay1672 Words   |  7 Pageseating disorders. An incredible link is shown between disordered eating and social trauma. Problems such as bullying, sexual abuse, racism, pressure from ones family and the media they are exposed to can trigger an eating disorder within a person (Mankiller). People with a â€Å"history of being teased or ridiculed based on weight or size† are incredibly likely to develop an eating disorder (NEDA). â€Å"(Eating disorders) are more like a recipe, where several ingredients—genetics, personality type, hormonesRead MoreOn How the American Indians Were Removed from Their Land1586 Words   |  7 PagesRemoval† New GeorgiaEncyclopedia.org Gilderlehrman.org Garrison, Tim A. â€Å"Cherokee Removal.† New Georgia Encyclopedia. 12/09/13. Web. http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaelogy/cherokee-removal. 4/12/14. Mankiller, Wilma Pearl and Micheal Wallis. Mankiller: A Chief and Her People. New York: ST. Martins Press, 1999. Sussex County Technical High School Virtual Library: Trail of Tears. Web. htpp://librarysussex.tec.nj.us/trail_of_tears.htm â€Å"Indian Removal.† PBS.org: Africans

Oil & Gas Exploration - Production - and Distribution

Question: The Impact of the Oil and Gas Exploration/Production/Distribution on the Environment. As an environmental consultant, your role is to provide guidelines and information on issues related to the impact of the oil and gas exploration, production and distribution on the environment. Analyse and discuss how this kind of impact can be prevented, if not, minimised. Answer: Introduction Oil and gas exploration is the process of searching hydrocarbon production under the earths services, which are mainly known as petroleum products. This process has to be in existence for over a century to sustain the demand of petroleum products that are used in several tasks. Hydrocarbon exploration is categorised in the branch of petroleum geology, which is among the largest mining exploratory processes. Different oil and gas exploration methods are currently exercised in this particular field to ensure that the extraction of petroleum is successful. For any particular areas to be subjected to the exploration, various processes must be undertaken to prove that there are high levels of hydrocarbon deposits. Some of these processes include; magnetic survey, gravity survey and seismic reflection to check whether the sub-surface geology is in large amounts (Howard et al., 2014). Despite the numerous advantages of oils and gas exploration in the community, there are some negative impacts on the environment. Based on previous research work, the entire process of oil exploration, production and distribution have posed several dangers to the environment, thus causing water, air, and soil pollution. The community has been focusing more on the importance of petroleum production, thus forgetting to handle the negative impacts experienced. Some environmental organisations have developed interventions to deal with such issues, but these plans and methods have gained little support from the authorities (Mariano and La Rovere, 2007). Therefore, this paper will outline the negative effects of exploration, production, and distribution of oil and gas on the atmosphere, specifically of air pollution. Environmental impacts on air pollution During the exploration of the oil and gas exploration, some emissions reduce the quality of the air in the surrounding environment. These emissions are as a results dust produced from the vehicles moving around the place, earth movers used, seismic surveys, testing, and completion of the wells. There are also pollutants that are emitted into the space such as nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxide, particulates, carbon monoxide among other volatile organic compounds. Some of these compounds combine to create ground ozone such as the volatile organic compounds and the nitrogen oxides (Jean-Pierre and Favennec, 2011). Dangers are also posted by the distribution processes, which includes the piping leakages and spillages from trucks. Fire tragedies have been frequently observed as a result of these spillages, thus leading to the emission of carbon monoxide into the atmosphere. In the petroleum production firms, the refining process of turning crude oil into petroleum products leads to the emission of toxins into the environment that is dangerous to the living things (TEEIC, 2014). The machines that are used in the exploration and production companies produces a lot of sounds that caused to noise pollution. People living in these areas are at risk of suffering from hearing problems because these sounds are unfriendly. Blasting, seismic activities, drilling, earth movers and traffic are among the sources of the noise. Carbon dioxide is produced in the process of burning gasoline, thus increasing the volume of greenhouse gases atmosphere, which increases the rate of global warming. The natural oil and gas processes lead to the emission of methane gas into the environment, due to incomplete combustion. Although, the rate of oil and gas combustion cannot be compared with coal, carbon dioxide, and methane gases are emitted in the processes. Based on environmental research works, methane contributes the highest percentage of air pollution in the society. Other hazardous air pollutants result from the oil and gas operation such as certain hydrocarbons and sulphide. Among these compounds, benzene is included, which is known as a human carcinogen. Benzene has been detected in several areas around natural gas production such as in Colorado and Texas, thus concluding that it is emitted in these particular processes (Kharaka and Dorsey, 2005). Formaldehyde is another hazardous pollutant that is emitted by compressors engines, and it has been perceived as a factor contributing to health issues, although there little studies that have correlated such pollutants with societal effects. Due to the air pollution resulted in air and oil operations, the neighbourhood residents have reported complaints from residents about cases such as dizziness, skin irritation, headaches, neurological and respiratory problems (Nasen, Noble, and Johnstone, 2011). The effects discussed above are the most experienced air pollution sourced from gas and oil operations. Ministries that are dealing with the exploration, production and distribution of oil and gases are working on projects that can reduce these negative effects in the society. Technology improvements in these operations are the only refuge, which can be used to lower the intensity of the effects perceived from these activities (Khan and Islam, 2007). Preventive measures for the impacts The operational processes of the oil and gas exploration, production and distribution activities should be reviewed to create more proactive and effective methods that are less harmful to the environment. Pollution prevention is a task that should be undertaken through a combination of efforts between the producers, government, and the private sector (Matanovic, Gaurina-Medimurec and Simon, 2013). Several methodologies can be used to reduce the effects of poisonous emissions to the atmosphere and noise pollution that disturbs the residents. Achieving a pollution-free environment, the society will be cleaner and eco-efficient (Exploration and Production, 2016). The atmospheric emissions have been reduced through the adoption of the latest and improved technologies that have been developed by engineering researchers (Xu et al., 2015). These technological developments have been conducted in search for better approaches to reducing the emissions, which will reduce the rate of air pollution from the oil and gas operations (E. Ite et al., 2013). Firstly, the technological improvements in the valve design and maintenance systems have reduced emissions fugitive contents. Also, improved design of the flare has raised the combustion efficiency, reducing the chance of harmful gases being emitted. The turbines gas have been made more efficient after consideration of their optimizations (Mariano and La Rovere, 2007). Other effective technologies have been generated to improve the power efficiency in the exploration, production and distribution processes. Some of these technologies are; compressor and pump optimisation, heat recovery for waste, electric power distribution, steam injection, and combined cycle generation among other technologies. Some of these improvements will help reduce noise pollution, which has been previously could by generators, compressors and explosions among others. For instance, if machines that are using fuel are replaced with those customised for electricity, the sound produced will be reduced. Technologies that are improving the efficiency of combustion are also being introduced into the industry. For instance, combustion of nitrogen oxides has been improved by the introduction of selective catalytic reduction technology and dry low NOx technology (Khan and Islam, 2007). The emission of carbon oxides into the atmosphere can also be prevented by employing some approaches into the storage and distribution of the petroleum products. For instance, cases of spillages on the piping systems should be reduced by creating an efficient maintenance system. Therefore, the probability of experiencing fire explosion caused by oil spillages in the pipes will be minimized. It is through the reduction of the fire tragedies when the amounts of carbon oxides emitted into the atmosphere will be reduced. Transportation of oil products by roads should be minimized, especially for long distance to reduce the cases of accidents that lead to explosions. It is the responsibility of all the government and the organisations dealing with oil and gas to ensure that they are operating under safe basis. Otherwise, these will be a lot of environmental effects that lead to discomfort for the residents and the world as a whole (Matanovic, Gaurina-Medimurec and Simon, 2013). Some of the effects such as global warming are long-term and without control, the side effects might outdo the benefits. More technological developments are required to solve the remaining of air pollution caused by oil and gas operations. Intentional emission of poisonous gas contents into the atmosphere should be condemned and violators judged under the law. Efficient technological approach The community has suffered a lot of negative effects caused by oil and gas operations. There are specific technological approaches that can be used to minimize the effects of petroleum exploration and its usage. The drilling technologies can be made efficient, thus reducing effects such as noise pollution to the society (E. Ite et al., 2013). Technological approaches can be developed to capture hazardous gases emitted from the process. Such of these technologies might include processes which mix these gases with other compounds to form useful of non-harmful substances. Currently, scientists have concentrated on creating cars, which do not depend on fuel to operate. Other sources of energy such as the sun and electricity have been the main focus for the scientists. It has not been clearly identified how the energy can be stored and made efficient for the vehicles. If such technological developments are created, the society will experience a cleaner environment, without pollution caused by emitted gases from motors that use petroleum. Technological methods of controlling and monitoring the oil and gas firms should be developed and implemented. Human beings will always make errors and there some mistakes that will always be assumed, but they cause a lot of effect to the environment. For instance, the setting of a valve might not be accurately configured, thus letting emission of large amounts of hazardous particles into space. In contrast, using a programmed software that has monitored certainty levels, it will be easy to identify errors in the configuration of the delicate sections (Bahadori, 2014). Emergencies will also identify effectively, thus enhancing the response speed and time. All these technological approaches will be economical, socially and environmentally effective. Monitoring scheme Projects and schemes that have been implemented need to be monitored and evaluated to be informed about the progress conditions. The stakeholders are responsible for generating the monitoring scheme, which is the government, investors in the oil and gas operations and the environmental protection association. For the case of the effective technological approaches, there should be monitoring schemes that evaluate every aspect. For instance, development of electric or solar cars can be monitored by the technological body that has implemented the idea, with the assistance of the respective governments. Secondly, installation of technological systems that controls the exploration, production and distribution processes will be monitored by the respective managements. A maintenance system should be created to reduce the chances of failures that may pose a great danger to the environment. In every technological approach created towards the air pollution led by oil and gas operations, an eff ective monitoring scheme should be developed to maintain the efficiency and effectiveness of the processes. Critical analysis of Refining, Marketing Retail Distribution The refining process of the stage when the crude oil is processed into usable products for the customer/consumers. These final products include jet oil, gasoline, heating oil, and diesel among others. The oil refining processes include several activities such as catalytic reforming, vacuum distillation, alkylation, hydrotreating, catalytic cracking, and isomerization. Natural gas is also processed through glycol hydration, amine treating, and compression processes. This method separates the mixtures of the compounds to form the required natural gases, which are then stored separately. Some of the gases that are formed from the petroleum include butane, ethane, isobutane, propane, and natural gasoline among others. Through the marketing channels, these petroleum products are marketed and purchased from the companies or distributed nearer to the customers. The main transportation channels include tanker, pipeline, rail, and truck. Pipelines are cost efficient and economical for long di stance although truck and rail are used such situations. Conclusion and Recommendations In conclusion, oil and gas operations should be performed safely to minimize negative effects on the environment. Individuals who are involved in the oil and gas business should understand the environmental impacts of all the operations so that they can develop solutions for the benefit of the community. Therefore, it will be profitable to implement the existing preventive measures as more research results are being generated to provide solutions to underlying problems. The technological approaches for reducing the negative effects discussed above should be implemented and monitored for maximum outcomes in the oil industry. The government should develop policies, which firmly protect the environment against industrial emissions. This approach will help control recklessness on the oil and gas operations. References Bahadori, A. (2014). Pollution control in oil, gas and chemical plants. Cham: Springer International Publishing. Ite, A., J. Ibok, U., U. Ite, M. and W. Petters, S. (2013). Petroleum Exploration and Production: Past and Present Environmental Issues in the Nigerias Niger Delta. ENV, 1(4), pp.78-90. Exploration and Production. (2016). Oil and Energy Trends, 41(2), pp.26-26. Howard, R., Wells, C., Michot, T. and Johnson, D. (2014). Effects of Disturbance Associated With Seismic Exploration for Oil and Gas Reserves in Coastal Marshes. Environmental Management, 54(1), pp.30-50. Jean-pierre favennec, N. and Favennec, J. (2011). OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION 3RD EDITION. Paris: Technip. Khan, M., and Islam, R. (2007). True sustainability in technological development and natural resource management. New York: Nova Science Publishers. Kharaka, Y. and Dorsey, N. (2005). Environmental issues of petroleum exploration and production: Introduction. Environ. Geosci. 12(2), pp.61-63. Mariano, J. and La Rovere, E. (2007). Oil and gas exploration and production activities in Brazil: The consideration of environmental issues in the bidding rounds promoted by the National Petroleum Agency. Energy Policy, 35(5), pp.2899-2911. Maslennikov, S. and Potapov, S. (2004). Gas-Distribution Stations and Means of Their Automation. Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, 40(3/4), pp.138-142. Matanovic, D., Gaurina-Medimurec, N. and Simon, K. (2013). Risk analysis for prevention of hazardous situations in petroleum and natural gas engineering. Pennsylvania: IGI Global. Nasen, L., Noble, B. and Johnstone, J. (2011). Environmental effects of oil and gas lease sites in a grassland ecosystem. Journal of Environmental Management, 92(1), pp.195-204. Natural Gas Production. (2013). Oil and Energy Trends, 38(8), pp.29-31. Natural Gas Production. (2014). Oil and Energy Trends, 39(1), pp.24-26. Shannon, P. (1993). Oil and gas in Ireland - exploration, production, and research. FB, 11(1272). TEEIC, (2014). Oil and Gas Exploration Impacts. [Online] Teeic.indianaffairs.gov. Available at: https://teeic.indianaffairs.gov/er/oilgas/impact/explore/index.htm [Accessed 17 Jul. 2016]. Xu, B., Bai, Y., Chen, G. and Feng, R. (2015). The impact of engineering parameters on shale oil and gas production: theory and practice. "Proceedings" of "Oil Gas Scientific Research Projects" Institute, SOCAR, (2), pp.24-31.

Watergate Essays (2241 words) - Watergate Scandal, John Dean

Watergate Sex, drugs, money, power, you name it and there is a scandal for it, but look back and you will see that from all the scandals there have been, Watergate was among the worst. The Watergate scandal had everything. From Nixon disgracing the presidency by lying to the country and abusing his power, to his committees being involved in illegal acts and a big cover up. All leading to little side roads of corruption and lies. Watergate is by far one of the worst presidential scandals in the history of the United States. In the story of Watergate, five burglars were found breaking into democratic offices at the Watergate complex in Washington DC. The break-in was passed off as just another burglary, but when the burglars were found to have connections with the CIA, questions were starting to be asked. Then when the phone number of Howard Hunt was found in one of the burglars phone books, it made people think, "Why would one of the burglars have the phone number of one of the presidents men?" Then there is Richard Nixon, the man of the hour, plays the role of the president of the United States of America. The man that was voted into office by the people, and the man that swore to serve the people. When Watergate was uncovered, it revealed that the president was a liar and a cheat. The president lied to our country, lied about his involvement, concealed self incriminating evidence, abused his power, and planed to have the CIA stop the FBI investigations. He was also deeply involved with the cover up and still lied about his involvement. During the times of the unraveling of Watergate, questions were asked about connections with the White House and the president, but when the president was asked about it at a press conference he assured Americans that "The White House has no involvement whatever in this particular incident." He was lying to the country like it was part of his job (Dorman 158). The lying did not end there, it went on and on for months, and as the scandal kept unraveling, "President Nixon and White House, and creep officials were deliberately misleading the public about the significance of the Watergate affair" (158). As Watergate was becoming a front-page article in the newspapers, new evidence was being uncovered. One piece of evidence that changed the peoples ideas of our president was the tapping of every conversation in the oval office "since about the 18th month of president Nixon's term" (Kutler 368). Those tapes would soon prove that the president was deeply involved in the scandal. During the trials, "the Nixon administration claimed that the March 21st, 1973 meeting was the first Nixon had heard of the cover-ups", but after the tapes were heard it was discovered that Nixon was involved from the beginning (Heritage 36). The Nixon tapes brought out much controversy. The tapes alone could prove the president innocent or guilty, whichever one it was, Nixon refused to hand over the tapes. the courts then demanded the tapes, and Nixon still would not give them up. After much struggle Nixon agreed to give a transcript of the tapes. The transcripts brought to light a significant amount of evidence against Nixon. The transcripts revealed payoffs, affiliation with the burglaries, and the OK's to the cover-up, But most important "the transcripts showed that Nixon had lied repeatedly after he had denied knowing anything about the conspiracy" (27). After much struggle, the courts finally got the tapes from Nixon, It was Archibald Cox that issued the subpoena for the tapes, and that started the bloodbath we now know as the Saturday night massacre. "The night of October 20,1973, possibly the most tumultuous in American political history, when the special Watergate prosecutor and the nations two top law officers lost their jobs within the space of an hour and a half." (Heritage 38). Soon the country would find a new problem with the tapes. "When the presidents lawyers were going over the tapes, they came along an 18 minute gap during a conversation with Nixon and Haldman" (34). Three weeks later, the gap was discovered, Rosemary Woods (Nixon's secretary) testified that while transcribing the tape, she had accidentally erased perhaps five minutes when interrupted by a phone call, she said she had pressed the ?Record' button instead of the ?Stop' button and then kept her foot on the machines control pedal while speaking into the phone. (34) "Not everyone accepted this explanation; The maneuver would have been difficult